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ILLINOIS    UBIURl 


L161— O-1096 


I 


Japanese  Temples  and  Houses 

BY 

HELEN  C.  GUNSAULUS 
Assistant  Curator  of  Japanese  Ethnology 


FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

CHICAGO 

1924 


IN  i     1924    •    •    • 
Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

Department  of  Anthropology 

Chicago,  1924 
Leaflet  Number  14 

Japanese  Temples  and  Houses 

A  general  idea  of  the  architecture  of  Japan  may 
be  gained  from  the  study  of  a  group  of  small  prints 
called  surimono,  which  hang  in  Gunsaulus  Hall  each 
year  from  October  to  January.  The  majority  of 
prints  in  this  exhibition  (Series  IV)  illustrates  the  ex- 
teriors and  interiors  of  dwellings  in  country  and  city; 
some  of  the  surimono  picture  inns  and  tea-houses, 
and  a  few  furnish  glimpses  of  temples  and  shrines. 

In  the  very  early  days  of  Japanese  history,  prior 
to  the  introduction  of  Buddhism  in  the  sixth  century, 
houses  and  temples  were  built  after  a  common  plan; 
the  word  miya  was  used  to  designate  both  the  Shinto 
shrine  and  the  palace  of  the  ruler.  According  to  Sir 
Ernest  Satow,  the  dwellings  of  the  earliest  Japanese 
sovereigns  were  modest  structures,  wooden  huts  of 
rectangular  form,  with  pillars  planted  firmly  in  the 
ground,  and  with  a  floor  very  close  to  the  earth. 

Possibly  the  floor  originally  was  of  mud  with  a 
raised  wooden  portion  built  only  around  the  sides  of 
the  hut,  and  used  for  the  sleeping  quarters.  The  whole 
framework  of  the  hut,  consisting  of  posts,  beams, 
rafters,  door-posts,  and  window-frames,  was  tied 
together  with  cords  made  of  twisted  fibrous  stems  of 
climbing  plants.  The  rafters  projected  beyond  the 
ridge-pole  and  crossed  each  other,  thereby  ornament- 
ing both  ends  of  the  roof  which  was  heavily  thatched. 
Two  logs  were  laid  along  the  ridge-pole  and  rested  in 
the  forks  formed  by  the  crossed  rafters.  In  order  to 
hold  these  logs  in  place,  short  logs  at  equal  distances 

[93] 


2  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

were  fastened  at  right  angles  to  the  ridge  by  twisted 
ropes  which  passed  through  the  thatch  and  thus  se- 
cured the  roof  together.  At  each  end  of  the  gable  there 
was  likely  an  opening  through  which  the  smoke  was 
allowed  to  escape.  This  feature  is  still  a  conspicuous 
mark  in  almost  every  house;  one  very  rarely  sees  a 
chimney  in  Japan.  The  walls  and  doors  were  at  first 
made  of  rough  matting  and  later  of  planking.  The 
outlines  of  these  early  buildings  were  all  straight; 
curves  were  not  introduced  until  the  Nara  period 
(a.d.  712-784).  All  of  the  building  materials  were 
vegetable;  tiles  and  metal  trimmings  were  not  em- 
ployed until  after  the  introduction  of  Buddhism. 

Shinto  worship,  being  primarily  a  nature  cult, 
was  doubtless  originally  celebrated  out-of-doors.  The 
first  shrines  were  derived  from  the  primeval  hut  and 
from  an  early  time  were  built  with  an  elevation, 
raised  some  feet  above  the  ground,  surrounded  by  a 
balcony  and  reached  by  a  simple  staircase.  Both 
houses  and  temples  were  encompassed  by  fences.  The 
architecture  of  pure  Shinto  may  be  studied  to-day  at 
Ise,  where  the  main  temple  buildings  are  torn  down 
and  reproduced  exactly  every  twenty  years,  thereby 
preserving  the  ancient  form  of  shrine.  Though  there 
are  a  few  touches  indicative  of  continental  influence, 
such  as  metal  ornamentation,  these  buildings  are  ex- 
cellent examples  of  early  types  of  construction. 

Prior  to  the  introduction  of  Buddhism,  Shinto 
shrines  were  always  made  of  unstained  cryptomeria 
wood;  roofs  were  thatched,  or  covered  with  strips  of 
bark  or  shingles.  Within  the  yard  there  was  always 
to  be  seen  a  gate-like  structure  known  as  torii  ("bird 
rest")  made  of  two  upright  trunks  on  the  tops  of 
which  rested  a  long  straight  beam  whose  ends  pro- 
jected slightly.  Beneath  this  was  another  horizontal 
beam  whose  ends  did  not  project.    In  early  days  the 

[94] 


THt  LttfiAMl 
OF  THfc 

ttimaumr  bf  humus 


1 


Japanese  Temples  and  Houses  3 

torii  was  always  made  of  unpainted  wood.  It  stood 
near  the  temple,  and  is  thought  to  have  been  origi- 
nally used  as  a  perch  for  fowls  which  were  offered  to 
the  temple,  not  as  food,  but  as  announcers  of  the  break 
of  day. 

After  the  ninth  century  when  Buddhism  gained 
in  influence  and  practically  swallowed  much  of  the 
Shinto  religion,  many  of  the  primitive  features  of 
Shinto  architecture  were  transformed  into  a  new 
beauty.  Torii  were  then  made  of  stone,  copper,  or  of 
wood  lacquered  red,  and  many  lost  their  angular  out- 
line by  the  substitution  of  a  curved  beam  on  the  top  in 
place  of  the  straight  beam  of  pure  Shinto  form.  Hence- 
forward they  were  placed  in  the  front  of  a  temple  and 
served  as  entrance  gateways.  In  a  surimono  by 
Hokkei  (Fig.  1)  we  may  study  the  temple  of  Benten 
at  Susaki,  built  in  the  late  seventeenth  century.  In 
the  foreground  of  the  picture  is  the  torii  standing 
just  outside  the  fence  which  has  a  roofed  gateway  for 
an  entrance.  In  earlier  days  these  gateways  were 
thatched ;  some  of  the  latter  type  may  be  seen  in  other 
prints  in  this  exhibit.  The  Buddhists  also  changed 
the  severe  outline  of  certain  Shinto  torii,  by  adding  to 
the  crossbeams  framed  tablets  ornamented  with  in- 
scriptions. During  the  revival  of  Shinto  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  most  of  these  Buddhist  accretions  were 
removed.  One  may  be  seen  on  the  torii  at  Ushigozen 
shrine,  pictured  in  a  print  by  Hokkei. 

It  was  customary  for  devotees  and  petitioners  to 
erect  torii  before  the  entrance  to  a  temple  in  honor 
of  the  deity  who  was  worshipped  therein.  The  num- 
ber of  such  gifts  was  unlimited;  in  many  places  long 
vistas  were  formed  by  rows  and  rows  of  these  votive 
offerings.  In  a  long  surimono,  Hokusai  has  depicted 
the  picturesque  approach  to  the  temple  of  Inari,  to 
whom  many  torii  have  been  dedicated.    In  certain  of 

[96] 


4  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

the  prints  a  number  of  stone  lanterns  will  be  noticed ; 
these  were  also  a  form  of  votive  offering.  Many  of 
them  stand  outside  temples  to-day;  some  are  of  con- 
siderable age,  others  are  recent  gifts  from  devoted 
followers. 

Buddhism  was  brought  to  Japan  from  China  by 
way  of  Korea,  and  was  first  introduced  in  a.d.  552. 
In  the  wake  of  the  new  faith,  artists,  sculptors,  and 
architects  came  to  the  country,  bringing  with  them 
the  culture  and  arts  of  the  continent,  where  Chinese 
civilization  had  reached  a  very  high  mark.  Only  the 
bare  outlines  of  Buddhist  temples  are  given  in  these 
small  prints.  The  shrine  to  Benten  at  Susaki  (Fig.  1) 
is  one  of  the  more  modest  of  these  edifices.  This 
particular  temple,  though  built  in  the  late  seven- 
teenth century,  will  serve  to  illustrate  some  of  the 
distinguishing  characteristics  of  Buddhist  architec- 
ture. It  will  be  noted  that  the  temple  is  set  upon  a 
rock  foundation  and  that  the  lines  of  the  roof  are 
curved.  The  walls  of  the  early  temples  were  con- 
structed of  latticework  filled  in  with  plastered  clay; 
the  floors  were  at  first  of  tile,  later  of  wood ;  and  the 
roofs  were  covered  over  with  tiles  which  were  gene- 
rally ornamented  on  the  ends.  Pillars  with  brackets 
supported  the  curved  roof.  At  first,  they  were  of 
simple  construction,  and  were  decorated  with  cloud- 
forms;  later,  the  brackets  became  very  complicated  in 
form.  In  the  first  few  centuries  after  Buddhism  was 
introduced,  everything  in  the  temple  architecture  was 
constructional,  and  ornament  was  applied  only  to  con- 
structional details.  From  the  eleventh  century  on, 
decoration  came  to  be  applied  more  and  more. 

The  period  between  the  twelfth  and  fourteenth 
centuries  is  characterized  by  gorgeous  decoration  on 
the  inside  of  temples  and  palaces.  By  this  time,  the 
dwellings   of   rulers   had,   through   the   influence   of 


Japanese  Temples  and  Houses  5 

Chinese  palace  architecture,  become  very  costly  and 
elaborate  structures.  The  famous  Silver  and  Golden 
Pavilions  at  Kyoto,  of  which  only  the  latter  is  stand- 
ing, must  have  been  glories  of  splendor  in  the  days  of 
their  pristine  beauty.  The  Golden  Pavilion  is  square, 
of  three  stories  in  height,  and  the  roofs  have  the  gentle 
sweeping  curve  of  many  of  the  temple  roofs.  The 
whole  structure  of  the  second  story  was  covered  with 
gold  leaf,  and  the  first  story  was  profusely  orna- 
mented with  paintings,  some  of  which  still  remain. 

The  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  saw  the 
beginnings  of  feudal  architecture,  and  by  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  great  strongholds  belonging 
to  the  feudal  lords  were  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of 
the  country,  particularly  near  Yedo  (Tokyo),  which 
was  the  capital  of  the  shogun.  These  castles,  of  which 
a  few  remain,  were  usually  square,  of  two  or  more 
stories,  and  built  on  steep  stone  foundations.  Bar- 
racks, in  which  the  retainers  lived,  surrounded  the 
central  castle.  The  walls  of  the  lord's  dwelling  were 
covered  with  plaster  or  with  tiles,  windows  were 
heavily  barred,  and  roofs  were  usually  tiled.  The 
ends  of  the  roof  ridge  were  capped  with  copper  ter- 
minals in  the  shape  of  carp  or  dragons,  or  with  large 
tiles  on  which  the  owner's  crest  was  blazoned. 

In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  life 
became  very  luxurious  among  the  military  classes  in 
Japan.  Ornament  was  lavished  upon  everything  con- 
nected with  home  and  temple.  During  this  period  the 
temples  at  Nikko,  shrines  to  the  Tokugawa  shoguns, 
were  built.  One  has  only  to  glance  at  the  tapestry 
hanging  on  the  north  wall  in  Gunsaulus  Hall  to  ap- 
preciate the  complicated  structure  of  these  shrines 
which  illustrate  the  extreme  degree  to  which  temple 
architecture  had  developed  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
There  one  may  see  the  graceful,  sweeping  curves  of 

[97] 


6  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

the  tiled  roofs,  the  elaborate  use  of  gold  and  red  lac- 
quer in  the  gateways  and  cloisters,  the  complicated 
bracketing  of  the  supports,  the  intricate  openwork  de- 
signs chiselled  in  gateways  and  in  the  friezes  of  the 
temples,  and  the  carvings  and  paintings  which  adorn 
the  horizontal  beams,  the  eaves  and  ceilings.  This 
temple,  built  under  Buddhist  influence,  is  a  far  cry 
from  the  simple  Shinto  shrine  of  pure  unstained  wood, 
with  thatched  roof.  In  order  to  appreciate  the  more 
compelling  beauty  of  the  early  Buddhist  structures 
one  should  study  the  series  of  plates  published  by  the 
Shimbi  Shoin  of  Tokyo,  under  the  title  "Japanese 
Temples  and  Their  Art  Treasures."  This  book  may 
be  found  in  the  Museum  Library. 

While  temple  architecture  was  developing  new 
characteristics,  the  common  style  of  dwelling  was  also 
passing  through  various  changes.  It  is  important  to 
note,  however,  that  very  little  of  the  Chinese  influence 
is  registered  in  the  houses  of  the  middle  class. 
Through  all  the  centuries  their  dwellings  were  made 
of  wood,  as  were  the  Japanese  temples.  Stone  was 
only  occasionally  employed  for  the  feudal  mansions. 
Storehouses,  called  kura,  are  sometimes  of  stone,  but 
usually  are  frame  structures  made  strong  and  fire- 
proof by  an  extremely  thick  coating  of  plaster.  These 
buildings  generally  stand  quite  detached  from  the 
dwellings  to  which  they  belong. 

To-day,  in  many  houses  in  the  larger  cities,  there 
are  evidences  of  European  civilization,  such  as  electric 
light,  plumbing,  heating,  and  so  forth.  While  adding 
to  the  comfort  of  living,  these  appliances  in  almost 
every  case  are  found  to  be  inharmonious  with  the 
simplicity  and  charm  of  the  purely  native  dwelling. 
The  descriptions  which  follow  apply  to  houses  seen 
to-day  in  the  interior,  and  deal  with  dwellings  pictured 
in  this  collection  of  prints,  all  of  which  antedate  1860. 

[98] 


THE  LIBRARY 

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Japanese  Temples  and  Houses  7 

The  Japanese  house  gives  the  impression  of  being 
a  flimsy,  insecure  structure,  for  it  practically  consists 
of  several  wooden  beams,  upright  and  horizontal,  one 
or  two  wooden  walls,  and  three  or  more  sliding  walls, 
which  are  covered  with  paper  and  which  may  be  set 
up  or  removed  at  pleasure.  Many  houses  have 
thatched  roofs ;  the  majority  of  city  houses  have  roofs 
which  are  tiled.  Through  the  recent  disaster  of  the 
earthquake  and  fire  in  September,  1923,  the  outside 
world  has  been  brought  to  realize  that  the  Japanese 
people  have  had  to  evolve  a  house  structure  which  will 
best  respond  to  violent  disturbance.  They,  therefore, 
build  their  houses  of  light  materials  and  place  the 
supporting  beams  on  hollowed-out  rocks  which  have 
been  driven  into  the  ground.  Thereon  the  house  may 
be  free  to  sway  with  the  earthquake  tremors  and  not 
offer  the  violent  resistance  which  would  result  from  a 
structure  built  on  a  fixed  stone  foundation.  While 
the  roof  of  tile  is  one  precaution  against  fire,  the 
inevitable  companion  of  earthquake,  it  is  often  the 
cause  of  much  damage,  through  its  great  weight,  at 
the  time  of  violent  disturbance  when  buildings  sway, 
fall,  and  are  shattered.  In  case  of  fire  alone,  tiles  may 
be  quickly  removed  from  the  roofs  of  adjoining  build- 
ings, board  ceilings  may  be  hastily  packed  up,  and 
screen  partitions,  mats,  and  furniture  carried  off, 
thereby  leaving  only  the  skeleton  framework  as  food 
for  the  flames. 

It  may  be  recalled  that  the  early  Japanese  hut  had 
its  upright  beams  driven  into  the  ground.  These 
wooden  supports  undoubtedly  rotted  and  crumbled 
within  a  few  years  after  setting  up.  The  stones  on 
which  the  house  beams  of  to-day  rest  serve  not  only  as 
sockets  in  which  the  supports  may  oscillate,  but  also 
are  protective  shields  against  the  damp  surrounding 
earth.  The  typical  house  is  of  one  story,  built  of 
unpainted  wood,   and  is  of  the  simple  construction 

[99] 


8  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

outlined  above — upright  beams  which  run  from  the 
ground  to  the  transverse  beams  and  inclines  of  the 
roof.  Whereas  the  beams  and  roof  of  the  early  hut 
were  tied  together  with  ropes  of  vegetable  fibre,  the 
framing  of  to-day's  house  is  secured  either  by  short 
strips  which  are  let  in  to  appropriate  notches  in  the 
upright,  or  by  longer  strips  of  wood  which  pass 
through  mortises  in  the  uprights,  and  are  firmly 
keyed  or  pinned  in  place.  A  Japanese  house  is  a 
marvel  of  joinery  and  presents  a  rigid  unit  against 
lateral  and  diagonal  shocks  of  earthquake  and  a  solid 
resistance  against  the  strains  of  lifting  winds. 

The  small  inn  at  Kanazawa  pictured  by  Hokkei 
(Fig.  2)  is  built  on  the  general  plan  of  a  private  dwell- 
ing. The  house  is  elevated  about  a  foot  and  a  half 
above  the  ground  and  reached  by  a  simple  step,  in  this 
case  constructed  out  of  stone  blocks;  other  prints  in 
this  exhibition  show  steps  made  of  wood  or  of  stones 
in  their  natural  form.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  space 
beneath  the  building  is  open,  unprotected  from  the 
winds  which  would  sweep  beneath  it.  Larger  houses 
and  inns,  such  as  the  row  of  two-storied  buildings  at 
Shinegawa  (Fig.  3),  have  this  space  boarded  up  or 
latticed.  This  additional  framework  helps  to  secure 
the  uprights. 

Across  the  front  of  most  of  the  houses,  and  partly 
surrounding  them,  is  a  veranda  which  is  protected  by 
overhanging  eaves  and  which  serves  as  the  threshold 
to  the  living-room  in  the  majority  of  dwellings.  Here 
all  sandals  or  clogs  are  slipped  off  and  left  before 
entering  the  house.  At  night  and  in  stormy  weather, 
heavy  wooden  sliding  doors  called  amado  are  slipped 
into  grooves  which  run  along  the  edge  of  the  veranda. 
These  protect  the  passage  and  also  shelter  from  the 
rain  the  shoji  or  movable  walls  which  enclose  at  least 
two  sides  of  the  dwelling. 

[100] 


Japanese  Temples  and  Houses  9 

Shdji  are  semi-transparent,  sliding  screens  made 
of  a  light  framework  entirely  or  partially  covered  with 
thin  paper  through  which  the  light  and  sun  niters. 
In  cool  bright  weather,  they  serve  as  the  outside  walls, 
when  the  amado  are  removed  and  stored  in  a  closet  for 
the  day.  In  summer,  shdji  are  often  entirely  removed, 
and  a  large  part  of  the  house  is  thrown  open  to  the 
fresh  air  and  sunshine.  Since  much  of  the  necessary 
lighting  comes  from  the  large  shdji,  windows  are  not 
essentially  practical  in  their  form,  but  are  often  purely 
ornamental.  All  sorts  of  shapes  have  been  used  for 
these  openings  called  mado.  Their  enclosures  like- 
wise run  in  grooves,  are  paper-covered,  and  called 
shdji.  Many  charming  designs  for  windows  may  be 
studied  in  Edward  S.  Morse's  book  "Japanese  Homes," 
a  work  of  extreme  value  both  on  account  of  its  detailed 
subject-matter  and  its  numerous  illustrations. 

While  the  street  front  of  a  house  may  be  plain  and 
sombre,  the  back,  where  the  best  rooms  are  located,  is 
usually  made  beautiful  and  inviting  by  a  garden  which 
is  often  a  miniature  landscape  with  evergreens,  small 
brook,  foot-bridge,  rocks  of  picturesque  forms,  and  a 
stone  lantern.  Many  of  these  garden  accompaniments 
are  pictured  in  these  small  prints;  several  stone 
lanterns  of  different  shapes  may  be  singled  out. 

Fences  are  also  of  interesting  and  odd  forms; 
three  rather  common  ones  are  here  illustrated,"  one  is 
of  bamboo,  another  of  brushwood,  and  a  third  of  reeds 
or  rushes  bound  together  in  bundles.  (See  bamboo 
and  brushwood  fence  in  Department  of  Botany, 
Hall  27.)  A  peculiar  form  of  fence,  pictured  several 
times,  is  that  known  as  "sleeve-fence"  (sodegaki). 
This  is  usually  four  or  five  feet  long,  strictly  orna- 
mental and  always  built  out  from  the  side  of  the 
house  or  from  a  permanent  wall.  It  often  serves  as  a 
screen  for  concealing  the  entrance  to  the  toilet-room 

[101] 


10  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

which  is  built  at  one  end  of  the  veranda.  Nearby  in 
the  garden  will  be  found  the  chodzu-bachi,  a  recep- 
tacle used  for  holding  water  to  pour  over  and  wash 
the  hands.  There  are  many  attractive  types  of 
chodzu-bachi,  some  are  of  bronze,  others  are  made  of 
stone  or  of  pottery.  The  simpler  form  is  a  wooden 
bucket  and  a  dipper  suspended  from  the  eaves  by  a 
bamboo  stick.  The  one  in  Fig.  7,  at  the  right  of  the 
picture,  is  a  tall  cylinder  of  stone  with  a  depression 
in  the  top ;  a  small  dipper  is  resting  upon  it. 

For  many  centuries  the  Japanese  have  been 
devoted  to  the  drinking  of  tea.  In  many  of  the  older 
gardens  there  are  small  tea-rooms,  buildings  quite  dis- 
tinct from  the  popular  rustic  summer-house  wherein 
these  nature-loving  people  like  to  retire  to  admire  a 
pleasing  view  or  listen  to  the  singing  insects  at  dusk. 

The  tea-room  became  a  very  important  adjunct  to 
the  Japanese  house  in  the  fifteenth  century  when  tea- 
drinking  developed  into  an  elaborate  ceremony  with 
certain  rules  of  procedure  rigidly  outlined.  The  cere- 
mony goes  by  the  name  of  cha-no-yu.  Tea  drinking 
was  at  first  enjoyed  only  by  the  priests,  and  was 
especially  practised  by  followers  of  the  Zen  sect  of 
Buddhism,  who  spent  much  of  their  time  in  the  quiet 
contemplation  of  nature.  The  priests  undoubtedly 
held  their  early  meetings  in  the  temple  groves.  The 
keynote  of  the  tea-ceremony  has  always  been  the  love 
of  nature  and  simplicity.  When  the  custom  was  gene- 
rally adopted,  tea-rooms  were  built  adjoining  the 
private  dwellings.  They  were  of  a  severe  style,  with 
rough  plaster  walls,  plain  white  paper  on  the  shoji, 
and  with  woodwork  generally  left  in  its  natural  rugged 
state.  The  entrance  was  made  low,  so  that  it  was 
necessary  for  one  entering  to  prostrate  himself  and 
crawl  in  on  his  hands  and  knees  in  the  attitude  of 

[102] 


Japanese  Temples  and  Houses  11 

humility.  Within,  the  plan  was  similar  to  the  guest- 
room of  the  house,  which  will  be  described  in  the 
following  pages. 

The  street  entrance  to  a  house  is  pictured  in 
another  surimono  by  Hokkei  (Fig.  4).  At  the  right 
is  a  shed-like  structure  used  for  storing  household 
supplies  such  as  bales  of  rice.  A  servant  holding  a 
paper  lantern  stoops  in  front  of  two  women  and 
adjusts  the  shoes  as  they  step  down  from  the  veranda. 
At  the  extreme  right,  one  may  see  two  little  jars  of 
bottle-form  standing  on  a  shelf.  This  is  the  kamidana 
or  "god-shelf,"  whereon  is  placed  a  miniature  shrine 
of  unstained  cypress  wood,  of  Shinto  form,  containing 
written  charms  and  wooden  tablets  bearing  the  names 
of  different  Shinto  deities.  Before  the  shrine  there  is 
usually  placed  a  small  pottery  lamp  with  a  wick  float- 
ing in  rape-seed  oil,  a  pair  of  vases  containing  sprays 
of  the  sacred  sakaki  (Cleryera  japonica),  and  two 
bottle-shaped  jars  holding  wine  for  the  gods.  The 
ancestral  tablets  are  worshipped  in  another  room  of 
the  house,  or  are  placed  in  the  miniature  Buddhist 
shrine  which  is  of  more  elaborate  form. 

In  the  centre  of  the  picture  (Fig.  4)  one  may  see 
a  hanging  curtain  slashed  into  three  panels  and  deco- 
rated along  the  bottom  with  a  swastika  border.  Such 
curtains  are  often  used  at  shop  entrances  or  at  kitchen 
doors  or  to  screen  closet-like  recesses  within  the  house. 
In  pictures  of  noblemen's  dwellings  there  are  often  to 
be  seen  hanging  curtains  suspended  from  a  lacquered 
stand  that  consists  of  a  square  base  supporting  two 
upright  rods  upon  which  is  fashioned  a  long  trans- 
verse bar.  On  the  west  wall  Keisai  has  pictured  such 
a  curtain  in  a  courtier's  home. 

As  one  enters  a  house,  he  notices  many  forms  of 
screens  used  as  protections  and  as  partitions.    When 

[103] 


12  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

the  outside  walls  are  removed  in  warm  weather,  bam- 
boo curtains,  many  of  them  with  delicate  designs 
traced  upon  them,  are  hung  up  just  within  the  lintel 
of  the  room,  affording  shade  and  free  passage  of  air. 
It  is  customary  to  place  across  the  space  opposite  the 
entrance,  a  standing  screen  of  one  leaf,  usually  of 
wood,  with  a  solid  frame  supported  by  two  transverse 
feet.  These  single-leafed  screens  are  called  tsui-tate. 
Three  appear  in  this  selection  of  pictures;  two  are 
ornamented  with  pictorial  designs,  the  other  (at  right 
in  Fig.  5)  is  decorated  with  caligraphy.  Screens  of 
two  panels  known  as  furosaki  bydbu  ("screen  to  pro- 
tect the  fire-vessel")  are  low  affairs  sometimes  folding 
and  sometimes  in  the  rigid  form  of  two  wooden  panels 
set  at  right  angles.  Large  folding  screens  (bydbu)  are 
of  two,  four,  or  six  panels,  and  are  often  of  great  value, 
especially  when  covered  with  paintings  by  one  of  the 
great  masters.  Some  of  the  rarest  of  these  screens 
come  in  pairs,  the  designs  of  which  are  complementary 
one  to  the  other.  A  folding  screen  ornamented  by  an 
unknown  artist  of  the  Tosa  school  is  installed  in 
Gunsaulus  Hall. 

Most  of  the  partitions  in  a  Japanese  house  are 
movable,  and  are  in  the  form  of  sliding  screens  which 
run  in  grooves  above  and  below.  The  upper  grooves 
are  set  in  the  lintel  or  beam  which  is  at  a  height  of 
six  feet  from  the  floor  and  which  runs  the  full  length 
of  the  room.  There  is  naturally  a  space  left  between 
this  beam  and  the  ceiling;  it  is  either  closed  by  a 
plastered  partition  or  filled  in  with  two  or  more  orna- 
mental panels  of  woodwork  known  as  ramma.  Upon 
these  fields  many  beautiful  designs  are  carved  in  open- 
work or  in  low  relief,  or  one  may  see  examples  of  light 
trellis-work  done  in  bamboo  filling  in  this  open  space. 

The  partition  screens  are  called  fusuma  and, 
unlike  the  outside  movable  walls  or  shoji  whose  slight 

[104] 


Japanese  Temples  and  Houses  13 

framework  is  covered  with  paper  which  is  translucent, 
these  screens  are  covered  on  both  sides  with  thick 
paper,  and  give  the  appearance  of  solid  walls.  In  less 
pretentious  houses  they  are  undecorated,  except  by 
an  ornamental  quality  of  paper.  In  other  dwellings 
and  especially  in  homes  belonging  to  the  nobility,  these 
sliding  panels  bear  upon  them  paintings  of  extreme 
beauty  and  value.  Some  of  them  represent  a  long 
panorama  which  stretches  across  the  whole  length  of 
the  room. 

When  light  is  required  in  an  inner  room,  a  shoji 
panel  is  often  substituted  for  the  central  fusuma  panel. 
In  summer,  light  reed  screens  sometimes  replace  the 
fusuma.  These  are  known  as  yoshido  from  the  name 
of  a  slender  rush  (yoshi)  of  which  they  are  made. 
Through  this  close  grating  the  air  and  some  light  may 
enter.  Partitions  of  yoshido  are  set  up  in  a  room 
pictured  in  a  long  surimono  by  Hokusai.  On  one  side 
of  the  screens  a  dancer  performs  in  a  room  lighted 
by  candles,  on  the  other  side,  half-hidden  from  view, 
one  may  distinguish  the  audience  and  the  musicians. 
Partitions  are  often  entirely  removed,  thereby  throw- 
ing all  rooms  together  into  one  large  hall. 

The  size  of  a  Japanese  room  is  never  reckoned  in 
feet,  but  rather  by  the  number  of  mats,  for  all  floor 
spaces,  bounded  by  the  grooves  for  the  sliding  parti- 
tions, are  covered  over  with  heavy  mats  (tatami)  of  a 
uniform  size,  three  by  six  feet.  These  are  made  of  sev- 
eral thicknesses  of  straw,  matted  and  sewed  together 
with  string,  and  bound  on  the  edges  with  a  strip  of 
black  cloth.  When  laid  on  the  floor,  they  are  so  placed 
that  the  corners  of  four  mats  never  come  together; 
the  corners  of  two  mats  abut  against  a  third.  The 
common  sizes  for  rooms  are  six  and  eight  mats.  All 
rooms  are  rectangular  with  the  exception  of  the  guest- 
room, in  which  there  is  an  alcove  with  two  bays.    One 

[106] 


14  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

of  these  is  a  clear  recess  with  a  slightly  raised  floor; 
it  is  called  the  tokonoma.  The  other  consists  of  a  small 
closet  with  sliding  doors  usually  built  in  connection 
with  a  shelf  of  two  levels,  which  is  known  as  "different 
shelf"  (chigaidana) .  The  tokonoma  is  clearly  visible 
in  Fig.  5,  at  the  back  on  the  right  side.  Within  it  stands 
a  bronze  vase  holding  a  flower-arrangement.  On  the 
wall  at  the  back  is  a  hanging  picture  (kakemono)  deco- 
rated with  writing ;  fine  caligraphy  is  as  much  admired 
in  Japan  as  is  skillful  painting. 

The  word  tokonoma  literally  means  "bed-place." 
Some  authorities  trace  the  origin  of  this  raised  recess 
to  the  ancient  raised  sleeping  place,  others  describe 
it  as  the  place  of  honor  awaiting  the  not  impossible 
visit  of  the  emperor.  Some,  particularly  Captain 
Brinkley,  tell  us  that  the  tokonoma  was  an  adoption 
from  the  Zen  monasteries,  wherein  the  tea-ceremony 
mentioned  above  was  first  practised.  In  the  monastery 
alcoves,  there  might  have  been  hung  a  sacred  picture  ; 
or  there  probably  stood  a  Buddhist  statue  which  served 
to  abstract  the  thought  of  the  monk,  as  he  sat  before 
it  in  contemplation.  The  house  tokonoma  to-day  serves 
as  the  platform,  whereon  is  placed  a  rare  treasure  of 
art.  Only  one  object  and  one  painting  or  series  of 
paintings  are  shown  at  a  time;  and  these  latter  are 
changed  with  the  seasons.  The  rest  of  the  household 
treasures  are  kept  either  in  the  closet  connected  with 
the  chigaidana,  or  in  the  fireproof  storehouse  built 
near  the  dwelling. 

Restraint  and  simplicity  are  notable  features 
throughout  the  Japanese  house.  All  of  the  woodwork 
is  left  unstained,  the  grains,  the  colors,  and  natural 
textures  are  greatly  admired.  What  we  might  con- 
sider blemishes,  such  as  knots  and  twists,  are  marks 
of  beauty  to  Japanese.  Particular  care  is  evidenced 
in   choosing  the   wood  for  the   post    (toko-bashira) 

[106] 


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Japanese  Temples  and  Houses  15 

which  heads  the  partition  between  the  tokonoma  and 
the  chigaidana.  In  Fig.  5  a  rough  bark-covered  pillar 
may  be  seen  in  the  centre  of  the  picture,  immediately 
behind  the  central  figure.  Several  characteristic 
forms  of  toko-bashira  are  on  exhibition  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Botany  in  Hall  27.  The  gnarled  and  rugged 
trunks  which  are  there  displayed  are  among  the  most 
desirable  types. 

There  is  a  marked  lack  of  furniture.  No  chairs 
are  seen,  since  it  is  the  custom  of  the  country  to  sit 
on  the  floor  on  one's  heels.  Cushions  and  mats  are 
sometimes  used  as  seats.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  a 
bedstead,  for  the  Japanese  also  sleep  on  the  floor, 
lying  on  and  under  thick  quilted  comforters  called 
futon.  No  sheets  are  used,  and  it  is  a  simple  matter 
to  fold  up  the  futon  and  store  them  away  in  a  cup- 
board and  relieve  the  room  of  any  appearance  of  a 
sleeping  chamber.  Pillows  are  of  various  forms. 
Before  the  reformation  in  1868,  when  many  men  wore 
their  hair  long  and  arranged  in  a  stiff,  elaborate 
fashion,  they,  as  well  as  women,  when  sleeping  sup- 
ported their  necks  upon  the  wooden  pillow  of  box-form 
(makura) ,  which  is  capped  by  a  cushion  covered  over 
with  a  folded  sheet  of  crepe  paper.  Occasionally  one 
finds  in  these  wooden  pillow-bases  a  small  drawer 
wherein  a  folding  lantern,  matches,  or  toilet  articles 
could  be  stored.  Some  pillows  used  in  former  times 
were  of  porcelain.  To-day  the  majority  of  men  rest 
with  their  heads  upon  a  small  hard  pillow  of  bolster 
form.  A  surimono  by  Kuniyasu,  hanging  on  the  west 
wall,  pictures  a  bed  made  of  several  futon  with  the 
pillows  of  box-form  lacquered  black. 

Low  tables  are  used  as  writing-desks,  and  are  of 
various  styles.  Plain,  unstained  wood,  red  and  gold 
lacquer,  and  wood  with  pearl  inlay  are  all  represented 
as  materials  employed  in  the  construction  of  writing- 

[107] 


16  Field  Museum  of  Xatceal  History 

tables  pictured  in  these  prints.  In  Fig.  6  a  poet  sits 
within  the  writing  space  near  an  open  shojiy  which 
half  discloses  a  garden  at  the  back  of  the  house.  On 
the  low  table  are  some  books  and  an  ink-stone  upon 
which  the  cake  of  ink  is  rubbed  after  being  slightly 
moistened.  The  man  holds  in  one  hand  a  writing- 
brush;  in  the  other,  a  long  strip  of  decorated  paper 
called  tamzakm,  a  form  used  for  the  inditing  of  short 
poems. 

There  is  usually  no  distinct  dining-room  in  a 
Japanese  house.  Food  is  brought  into  the  guest-room 
on  individual  tables  or  trays  which  are  set  down  on 
the  floor  before  the  guests.  It  may  be  unnecessary  to 
mention  the  charming  bowls  and  cups  of  porcelain 
and  lacquer  in  which  the  food  is  served;  however,  a 
dose  scrutiny  of  these  prints  reveals  a  variety  of  dishes 
which  are  worth  studying. 

Flower-pots  of  diverse  forms  and  sizes  are  also 
well  represented  in  this  collection.  Many  of  them  are 
of  blue  and  white  porcelain  (Fig.  7)  ;  others  are  of 
pottery  glazed  in  soft  shades  of  blue,  gray,  or  brown, 
and  some  are  of  bronze  with  ornamentation  embossed 
or  inlaid.  Every  home,  however  modest,  has  a  potted 
plant  on  the  window-sill,  porch,  or  floor,  and  its  flower- 
arrangement  in  the  tokonoma.  like  a  knowledge  of 
the  tea-ceremony,  the  art  of  flower-arrangement  is 
thought  to  be  a  necessary  accomplishment  for  the  cul- 
tured person.  Flowers  are  very  carefully  placed  so  as 
to  represent  the  three  entities  of  heaven,  man,  and 
earth.  They  are  never  crowded  haphazard  into  a  con- 
tainer, but  are  studied  and  grouped  so  as  to  give  the 
effect  of  a  growing  plant.  Tubes  of  bamboo  and  rough 
pottery  partially  glazed  are  often  preferred  as  vases 
on  account  of  their  rugged  simplicity  which  contrasts 
with  the  exquisite  beauty  of  a  living  blossom. 


Japanese  Temples  and  Houses  17 

The  Japanese  are  very  fond  of  picnic  parties,  and 
for  such  occasions  use  special  cabinets  known  as  bento- 
bake.  Two  made  of  gold  lacquer  are  pictured  on  the 
north  wall.  Bento-bake  are  fitted  with  food  boxes, 
deep  and  shallow  trays,  which  fit  one  on  top  of  another, 
and  with  wine  bottles  generally  made  of  porcelain 
or  silver. 

One  print  by  Gakutei  illustrates  an  antique  form 
of  book-cart,  a  box-like  contrivance  fitted  with  wheels 
and  called  fuguruma.  A  companion  picture  shows  a 
young  lady  seated  within  an  enclosure  of  golden 
screens,  holding  in  her  hand  a  lacquered  box  used  for 
the  despatching  of  letters;  such  boxes  are  known  as 
fubako. 

Two  more  pieces  of  furniture  may  be  studied  in 
Fig.  7.  One  is  a  low  chest  of  drawers,  a  sort  of  bureau 
(tansu)  made  of  lacquer  and  used  for  holding  toilet- 
articles  such  as  combs,  hair-ornaments,  rouge  for  the 
lips,  and  paint  for  whitening  the  face.  The  other  is 
a  lacquer  stand  of  easel-form,  on  which  is  set  a  metal 
mirror  partially  covered  with  a  silken  cloth.  A  mir- 
ror-stand is  often  combined  with  the  chest  of  drawers, 
being  smaller  than  the  one  illustrated  and  set  into  the 
top  of  the  bureau. 

In  addition  to  the  kakemono  displayed  in  the 
tokonoma,  one  often  sees  a  decorative  panel,  called 
"post  hide"  (Jiashira  kakushi),  hung  on  one  of  the 
upright  beams  which  comes  in  the  middle  of  a  parti- 
tion between  two  corners  of  a  room.  The  best  of  these 
panels  are  of  dark  cedar  decorated  on  both  sides, 
which  are  exposed  alternately  as  fancy  directs.  In 
Fig.  5  at  the  left  there  is  a  wooden  calendar  hung  on 
a  post.  This  panel  is  divided  longitudinally,  and  the 
long  and  short  months  are  listed  in  two  columns. 

Heating  arrangements  in  native  houses  are  very 
simple.    An  open  fireplace  with  a  chimney  is  entirely 

[109] 


18  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

foreign  to  the  Japanese  home.  In  place  of  this  one 
finds  either  a  fireplace  (furo)  sunk  in  the  floor  in  the 
tea-room  and  kitchen,  or  a  portable  brazier  called 
hibachi.  In  each  of  these  there  is  a  bed  of  fine  ashes 
in  which  a  few  pieces  of  burning  charcoal  glow. 
Hibachi  are  of  many  forms.  The  simplest  and  most 
common  are  wooden  boxes,  either  copper  lined  or 
containing  an  earthen  vessel  for  the  fire-pot.  Some 
hibachi  are  objects  of  great  beauty,  displaying  the  art 
of  the  metal-worker,  the  potter,  and  the  lacquerer. 
Three  types  of  braziers  are  illustrated  in  Figs.  5  and  6. 
In  the  first  picture  the  large  one  in  the  centre  is  of 
bronze.  Behind  it  a  woman  sits  holding  in  her  right 
hand  the  tongs  used  for  stirring  the  coals.  A  man 
seated  at  the  left  is  being  entertained  by  a  girl  who 
plays  a  tune  upon  a  row  of  differently  sized  cups.  He 
rests  his  hand  upon  a  large  earthen  brazier  which  has 
a  cover  upon  it.  Nearby  is  another  brazier,  tall  and 
cylindrical,  used  for  the  heating  of  the  water  pot;  a 
fan  with  which  to  blow  the  coals  lies  on  the  floor.  In 
many  of  the  prints  one  may  study  a  special  form  of 
small  brazier  which  goes  by  the  name  of  tabako-bon, 
because  it  is  a  convenience  used  for  smokers  of  tobacco. 
It  consists  of  a  box,  either  plain  or  lacquered,  with 
or  without  handle,  and  fitted  with  two  receptacles, — 
an  earthen  vessel  for  hot  coals  and  a  bamboo  tube  or 
segment  used  as  a  hand  cuspidor.  Some  of  the  tabako- 
bon  here  illustrated  are  fine  examples  of  the  lacquerer's 
art,  and  one  is  fitted  with  receptacles  of  silver. 

In  severe  weather  the  family  crowds  around  a 
sunken  hearth  or  fireplace  covered  with  a  latticed 
frame  (kotatsu),  over  which  a  quilt  can  be  thrown. 
Beneath  this  cover  several  people  can  conveniently 
slip  their  knees  and  heat  the  lower  part  of  their  bodies. 
Robes  are  warmed  in  much  the  same  way,  as  may  be 
seen  in  Fig.  8,  where  a  kimono  lies  upon  a  bamboo 

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Japanese  Temples  and  Houses  19 

rack  beneath  which  burns  a  small  fire.  In  the  back- 
ground a  sash  hangs  over  a  screen  of  the  form  called 
iko,  used  especially  as  a  rack  on  which  to  hang  clothes. 

Stone  garden  lanterns  and  stone  temple  lanterns 
have  already  been  mentioned.  Street  lights  were  for- 
merly somewhat  similar  to  the  temple  lanterns  or 
consisted  of  a  wooden  post  to  which  a  folding  paper 
lantern  was  held  in  a  fixed  position  by  a  tight  string 
and  protected  from  the  rain  by  a  small  curving  roof. 
Before  the  introduction  of  kerosene  and  electricity,  all 
house  lighting  was  effected  by  the  use  of  candles  and 
vegetable-oil  or  wax  lamps.  Candles  in  Japan  are  not 
fitted  into  sockets,  but  are  fixed  on  prickets,  and  hence 
are  made  hollow  in  the  centre.  The  wick  is  a  roll  of 
paper  similar  to  a  paper  taper.  Candlesticks  are  of 
many  forms  and  materials.  Iron,  brass,  pottery,  por- 
celain, and  lacquered  wood,  all  are  used  in  the  making 
of  them.  Tall  standing  sticks  with  plate-like  bases  are 
illustrated  in  certain  long  prints  in  this  exhibition. 

Another  type  appears  in  prints  by  Shinsai  and 
Hokusai.  It  is  of  metal,  has  three  small  legs  and  a 
long  handle,  and  is  fitted  with  an  hexagonal  shade 
covered  with  paper.  Such  lamps  are  convenient  for 
carrying  or  for  resting  on  the  floor.  A  common  form 
of  lamp  is  the  andon.  It  is  a  square  frame  of  wood 
with  open  top,  the  sides  of  which  are  covered  with 
paper.  One  side  is  in  the  form  of  a  movable  lid,  or 
two  sides  are  hinged  so  as  to  form  doors.  Within  this 
frame  a  small  triangular  shelf  is  fastened,  on  which 
is  set  the  small  pottery  lamp  with  wax  and  wick.  The 
paper-covered  frame  is  raised  and  secured  to  two 
uprights  which  are  fixed  in  a  square  base  with  a  small 
drawer  convenient  for  extra  wicks  and  saucers  of  oil. 
The  picturesque  custom  of  carrying  a  lantern  when 
going  out  at  night  has  fortunately  not  entirely  disap- 
peared.   For  this  purpose  the  paper  lantern,  either  of 

[ml 


20  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

the  folding  or  the  stiff  variety,  is  used.  These 
travelling  lanterns  are  almost  always  decorated  with 
the  crest  of  a  family  or  the  name  of  an  inn  or  some 
quaint  attractive  design.  Several  appear  in  these 
prints,  the  one  in  Fig.  4  being  a  typical  form. 

Helen  C.  Gunsaulus. 


[112] 


uNivERsrrr  of  illmok-urbana 


3  0112  055386194 


